Gender Inequality Beyond the Gender Binary: Adolescent Gender Norms and the Changing Gender Gap in American Education, 1960 - 2012 

 Joel Mittleman, University of Pennsylvania

Although scholars have long argued that boys’ academic engagement is undercut by dominant masculinity norms, these norms have been largely invisible in quantitative research. Instead, researchers have been restricted to documenting disparities by binary sex, collapsing the entire gender spectrum into a 0 or 1. Analyzing four decades of high school cohort studies, the current study moves beyond this binary approach to advance a new perspective on masculinity and the rising gender gap in education.

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